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Polar Capacitor
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Capacitors are very common components in electronic circuits and are second only to resistors as a circuit element in electronics and a large assortment is usually found in every electronics workshop. They are used in filters, both in power-supply filters and in signal filters, often in connection with operational amplifiers.
Capacitors are important in integrated circuits, and may be made from metal or poly silicon films with silicon dioxide dielectrics on silicon. They are used in several different ways in electronic circuits including sometimes to store a charge for high-speed use.
They are very common elements and are one of the three basic electronic elements along with resistors and inductors that make up all passive electrical circuits. Generally they are cylindrically shaped and have 3/8 brass studs for connections to flat bar or other heavy conductors, and can be found in many electrical and electronic devices such as the flash in a camera. Ceramic capacitors are another old favorite, relying on the very high dielectric constants of ferroelectric ceramics. Unfortunately, ceramic capacitors are not very stable and have high losses, though this is not serious in their usual applications.
Capacitors are designed to withstand a certain maximum voltage and are close to ideal if the voltage does not vary too rapidly, and is not excessive. Electrolytic capacitors are probably the most sensitive to temperature extremes. The oxide layer grows with one polarity, but is dissolved with the other polarity, so electrolytic capacitors are polarized, and must be connected the right way round in a circuit.
For large capacitances, the thin, chemically-deposited dielectric layers of the electrolytic capacitors are the choice.
At the present time, air-dielectric tuning capacitors are not common, having been replaced by smaller capacitors with mica or plastic dielectrics.
Filter capacitors are common in electrical and electronic work, and cover a great number of applications.
Experts say that if capacitors are not made right, they start to deteriorate after three or four years, rather than lasting the expected seven years.
Here's how to troubleshoot a start or run capacitor for your heat pump, furnace or air conditioner. The following reference material can save you time and money. Conduct the following steps, before you contact a service technician - http://www.hvacpartsoutlet.com
Electrostatic loudspeaker
Design and functionality
The speakers use a thin flat diaphragm usually consisting of a plastic sheet impregnated with a conductive material such as graphite sandwiched between two electrically conductive grids, with a small air gap between the diaphragm and grids. For low distortion operation, the diaphragm must operate with a constant charge on its surface, rather than with a constant voltage. This is accomplished by either or both of two techniques: the diaphragm's conductive coating is chosen and applied in a manner to give it a very high surface resistivity, and/or a large value resistor is placed in series between the EHT (Extra High Tension or Voltage) power supply and the diaphragm (resistor not shown in the diagram here).
The diaphragm is usually made from a polyester film (thickness 220 m) with exceptional mechanical properties, such as PET film. By means of the conductive coating and an external high voltage supply the diaphragm is held at a DC potential of several kilovolts with respect to the grids. The grids are driven by the audio signal; front and rear grid are driven in antiphase. As a result a uniform electrostatic field proportional to the audio signal is produced between both grids. This causes a force to be exerted on the charged diaphragm, and its resulting movement drives the air on either side of it.
In virtually all electrostatic loudspeakers the diaphragm is driven by two grids, one on either side, because the force exerted on the diaphragm by a single grid will be unacceptably non-linear, thus causing harmonic distortion. Using grids on both sides cancels out voltage dependent part of non-linearity but leaves charge (attractive force) dependent part. The result is near complete absence of harmonic distortion. In one recent design, the diaphragm is driven with the audio signal, with the static charge located on the grids (Final Sound).
The grids must be able to generate as uniform an electric field as possible, while still allowing for sound to pass through, and should be perfectly flat. Suitable grid constructions are therefore perforated metal sheets, a frame with tensioned wire, wire rods, etc.
To generate a sufficient field strength, the audio signal on the grids must be of high voltage. The electrostatic construction is in effect a capacitor, and current is only needed to charge the capacitance created by the diaphragm and the stator plates. This type of speaker is therefore a high-impedance device. In contrast, a modern electrodynamic cone loudspeaker is a low impedance device, with higher current requirements. As a result, impedance matching is necessary in order to use a normal amplifier. Most often a transformer is used to this end. Construction of this transformer is critical as it must provide a constant (often high) transformation ratio over the entire audible frequency range and so avoid distortion. The transformer is almost always specific to a particular electrostatic speaker. To date, Acoustat built the only "transformer-less" electrostatic loudspeaker. In this design, the audio signal is applied directly to the stators from a built-in high-voltage valve amplifier, without use of a step-up transformer.
Advantages
Advantages of electrostatic loudspeakers include the extremely light weight of the diaphragm, and exemplary frequency response (both in amplitude and phase) because the principle of generating force and pressure is not as prone to resonances as in the operating principle of the more common electrodynamic driver. Musical transparency can be better than in electrodynamic speakers because the radiating surface has much less mass than most other drivers and is therefore far less capable of storing energy to be released later. For example, typical dynamic speaker drivers can have moving masses of tens or hundreds of grams whereas an electrostatic membrane only weighs a few milligrams, several times less than the very lightest of electrodynamic tweeters. The concomitant air load, often insignificant in dynamic speakers, is usually tens of grams because of the large coupling surface, this contributing to damping of resonance buildup by the air itself to a significant, though not complete, degree. Electrostatics can also easily be executed as full-range designs, lacking the usual crossover filters and enclosures that could color or distort the sound.
Since most electrostatic speakers are tall and thin designs without an enclosure, they act as a vertical dipole line source. This makes for rather different acoustic behavior in rooms compared to conventional electrodynamic loudspeakers. Generally speaking, a large-panel dipole radiator is more demanding of a proper physical placement within a room when compared to a conventional box speaker, but, once there, it is less likely to excite bad-sounding room resonances, and its direct-to-reflected sound ratio is higher by some 45 decibels. This in turn leads to more accurate stereo reproduction of recordings that contain proper stereo information and venue ambience. Planar (flat) drivers tend to be very directional giving them good imaging qualities, on the condition that they have been carefully placed relative to the listener and the sound-reflecting surfaces in the room. Curved panels have been built, making the placement requirements a bit less stringent, but sacrificing imaging precision somewhat.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages include a lack of bass response (due to phase cancellation from a lack of enclosure, and the difficult physical challenge of reproducing low frequencies with a vibrating taut film with little excursion amplitude), and sensitivity to ambient humidity levels. While bass is lacking quantitatively, it can be of better quality ('tighter' and without 'booming') than that of electrodynamic (cone) systems. Phase cancellation can be somewhat compensated for by electronic equalization (a so-called shelving circuit that boosts the region inside the audio band where the generated sound pressure drops because of phase cancellation). Nevertheless maximum bass levels cannot be augmented because they are ultimately limited by the membrane's maximum permissible excursion before it comes too close to the high-voltage stators, which may produce electrical arcing and burn holes through it. Recent, technically more advanced solutions for lack of bass include the use of large, curved panels (Sound Lab, MartinLogan CLS), electrostatic subwoofer panels (Audiostatic) and long-throw electrostatic element allowing large diaphragm excursions (Audiostatic). Another trick often practised is to step up the bass (2080 Hz) with a higher transformation ratio than the mid and treble.
This relative lack of loud bass is often remedied with a hybrid design using a dynamic loudspeaker, e.g. a subwoofer, to handle lower frequencies with the electrostatic diaphragm handling middle and high frequencies. Many feel that the best low frequency unit for hybrids are transmission line woofers or horns, since they possess roughly the same qualities (at least in the bass) as electrostatic speakers, i.e. good transient response, little box coloration, and (ideally) flat frequency response. However, there is often a problem with integrating such a woofer with the electrostatics. This is because most electrostatics are line sources, the sound pressure level of which decreases by 3 dB for each doubling of distance. A cone speaker's sound pressure level, on the other hand, decreases by 6 dB for each doubling of distance because it behaves as a point source. This can be overcome by the theoretically more elegant solution of using conventional cone woofer(s) in an open baffle, or a push-pull arrangement, which produces a bipolar radiation pattern similar to that of the electrostatic membrane. This is still subject to phase cancellation, but cone woofers can be driven to far higher levels due to their longer excursion, thus making equalization to a flat response easier.
The directionality of electrostatics can also be a disadvantage in that it means the 'sweet spot' where proper stereo imaging can be heard is relatively small, limiting the number of people who can fully enjoy the advantages of the speakers simultaneously.
Because of their tendency to attract dust, insects, conductive particles and moisture, electrostatic speaker diaphragms will gradually deteriorate and need periodic replacement. They also need protection measures to physically isolate their high voltage parts from accidental contact with humans and pets. Cost-effective repair and restoration service is available for virtually every current and discontinued electrostatic loudspeaker model.
Amateur-built speakers
Electrostatic speakers enjoy some popularity among do-it-yourself (DIY) loudspeaker builders. They are one of the few types of speakers in which the transducers themselves can be built from scratch by an amateur. Basic hardware for complete ESL DIY projects is available all over the web. Such supplies include resistors and capacitors for RC-circuit frequency equalization, if necessary; step-up transformers; perforated metal sheets or grids and insulating plastics for the stators; polymer film and conductive paint (e.g. a liquid graphite suspension) for the membrane; simple tensioning equipment for proper membrane tuning; and a frame, usually of wood, to hold everything together. A widely-read resource by ESL enthusiasts is The Electrostatic Loudspeaker Design Cookbook (ISBN 978-1-882580-00-2) by notable ESL specialist Roger Sanders.
Commercial speakers
Arthur Janszen was granted U.S. Patent 2,631,196 in 1953 for the first practical electrostatic loudspeaker. The developers of the Tri-Ergon sound-on-film sound film system had developed a primitive design of electrostatic loudspeaker as early as 1919.
Among the first full-range electrostatics, and also among the most respected, was the Quad Electrostatic Loudspeaker (Quad ESL, later ESL-57) from Quad Electroacoustics, of Huntingdon, England. These were shaped somewhat like a home radiator curved slightly on the vertical axis. They were widely admired for their clarity and precision, but can be difficult to run while achiving low frequency bass output. The Quad ESLs were designed by Peter Walker, founder of the company, and David Williamson. The first in the series was the ESL-57, based on U.S. Patent 1,983,377 developed by Edward W. Kellogg for General Electric in 1934. It was introduced in 1955, put into commercial production in 1957, and discontinued only in 1985. In 1981, Quad introduced the ESL-63 as a successor to the ESL-57. It attempted to address both the deficiency in bass reproduction of the ESL-57 and its extreme directionality at high frequencies. The latter goal is achieved by splitting the stators into eight concentric rings, each fed with a slight time delay compared to the ring immediately inwards, thereby attempting to simulate a point source. The ESL-63 remained in production until 1999. In 1999 Quad introduced the ESL-988 and the ESL-989, both currently in production. Two new models, the smaller 2805 and the larger 2905, have been introduced as of late 2005, which return to the slightly back-tilted stance of the original designs, albeit user-adjustable. Largely retaining the larger bass panels of the 98x models and concentric ring design of the ESL-63, the 2x05's feature heavier and far more rigid construction, and several electronic and transducer refinements.
Innersound, Martin-Logan,Metrum Acoustics, and Sanders Sound Systems, build hybrid designs with conventional subwoofers.
Final Sound builds stand-alone electrostatic panels with freestanding bass-modules as an option. Final Sound also has two separate patents for producing electrostatic panels. They use an inverted audio drive to the panels, compared to conventional electrostatic speakers. The standard drive method is to apply the high voltage bias to a high resistance coating on the inner diaphragm and apply the audio signal from a center tapped audio transformer to the low resistance outer stators. In the Final Sound design, the stators are high resistance and a complementary, meaning a plus and minus high voltage bias supply is connected to opposite stators. The diaphragm is then driven by the audio transformer. According to their white paper only half the required turns ratio is needed for the same output. This lowers the cost and size of the transformer and makes it an easier load to drive with an amplifier.
Audiostatic,, Sound Lab exclusively build full-range electrostatic panels. The only active electrostatic loudspeaker currently in production is the Audiostatic DCA-5.
Among electrostatic full-range speakers which are no longer made are the KLH 9, one of the earliest US full-range designs, although the bass dropped of rapidly below 70 Hz . There were several Acoustat models manufactured, and the Infinity Servo-Statik and its successors which used a dynamic subwoofer at low frequencies.
Another full-range speaker that is out of production was the Canadian manufactured Dayton Wright XG-8 and the XG-10 from 1968 to the 1990s. They were distinctly different in design, by enclosing the panels in an airtight bin, containing sulphur hexaflouride, a gas used in high voltage arc suppression devices. This gas, even with a 50% dilution has a breakdown voltage compared to air of about 2.5 times. This allowed a much higher than usual polarization voltage of up to 16 kV, more than twice as high as any other electrostat. The advantages were higher sensitivity approaching that of conventional speakers and not requiring the insulation of the stators. The higher bias was not used to just increase the efficiency, but mainly to produce high output by increasing the gap between stator and driven diaphragm to almost 0.2 in. This coupled with an enormous step-up transformer allowed the audio voltages to also reach 16 kV for higher output levels than any other design then and now. With an amplifier of 500 W rms per channel, sound pressure levels equal to conventional speaker could be produced. The bass response down to 40 Hz was achieved by several things. First the cell diaphragm coating had a resistance exceeding 1000 M per square, requiring charge times of several days, but this increased the charge migration time to a few seconds, reducing the low frequency distortion. A large core transformer that did not saturate at 600 W at 20 Hz. Taking advantage of the advantage of the SF6 gas to provide heavier than air loading to the electrostatic cells to drive the front and rear external diaphragms being 1.6 times larger than the cells. In addition the propagation of sound is 2.3 times slower in the gas, giving the effect of a much longer acoustic path and so lowering the cancellation frequency of the speaker caused by the out of phase rear wave. In addition, the transformer primary inductance was resonated with a capacitor to produce a low Q circuit at about 45 Hz to lift the response. The earlier models (XG8) had 8 cells per speaker and the later models has 10 cells. The cells were not full range due to their width causing too much beaming at high frequencies and the attenuation of the front diaphragm. The high frequency driver was a Motorola piezoelectric tweeter crossing over at about 7 kHz which was then replaced with a Panasonic leaf tweeter in the later generation models, crossed over at 6 kHz. The piezoelectric tweeter was mounted inside the bin as it performed actually better with the gas than in air, but the leaf tweeter was mounted on the outside of the exterior diaphragm. Dayton Wright ,
Other manufacturers currently producing electrostatic loudspeakers include Immersion from Australia; and Solosound in The Netherlands, King's Audio, and Panphonics from Finland
Specialized electrostatic high frequency drivers (i.e., tweeters) are still in common use by many manufacturers,
References
^ The theory of electrostatic forces in a thin electret (MEMS) speaker Eino Jakku, Taisto Tinttunen and Terho Kutilainen, proceedings IMAPS Nordic 2008 Helsingr - September 1416
^ Fritz, Jeff; Mickelson, Marc (May 2004), "Innersound Factory Tour", SoundStage! (Schneider Publishing), http://www.soundstagelive.com/factorytours/innersound/, retrieved 2009-05-16
^ http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/loudspeaker.html
^ http://innersound.net/
^ http://www.metrum-acoustics.nl/
^ Sanders Sound Systems Products
^ http://www.finalsound.com/
^ http://www.finalsound.nl/downloads/whitepaper2007.pdf/
^ http://http://www.acoustat.co.uk/loud-speakers-about-acoustat.html/
^ http://www.soundlab-speakers.com/
^ http://www.stereophile.com/floorloudspeakers/666klh/
^ http://http://www.acoustat.co.uk/loud-speakers-about-acoustat.html
^ http://www.dayton-wright.com/
^ http://www.iti-plc.com/
^ http://www.solostatic.com/
^ http://www.kingsaudio.com.hk/
^ http://www.panphonics.com/
External links
The Audio Circuit - An almost complete list of manufacturers of electrostatic loudspeakers including DIY speakers, materials and parts, and 'how do they work' sections.
Categories: Electrostatics | LoudspeakersHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from May 2009 | All articles needing additional references
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Capacitor charging polarity question?
Lets say I charge a capacitor with a 100V. Assuming no losses, what will the voltage of the positive plate, and the negative plate be?
Will the positive plate be +100V, and the negative plate -100V, or will the positive be +100V, and the negative 0V.
What I'm asking is if there is an inverse voltage polarity relationship between the plates of a charged capacitor?
Also, what effects would the capacitor have if it were charged with a unipolar or bi-polar frequency?
The voltage between the plates will be 100V. If you ground the negative plate, then it will be at 0V compared to ground while the positive plate is at +100V compared to ground.
Voltage must always be measured between two points, that is why voltmeters have two leads. But sometimes people refer voltages to ground. So if we say "The voltage at point A is 12 Volts", that usually means between point A and ground.
There is no "inverse voltage polarity relationship".
There is no such thing as a "unipolar or bi-polar frequency". Frequency is measured in Hertz, and has no polarity.
If you connect AC to an electrolytic capacitor, it destroys it because the positive terminal must not go negative compared to the negative terminal.
There are capacitors available which can handle AC. Electric motor start capacitors are the most common. But there is a limit to how much current they can take, and for how long.
"Bi-Polar" electrolytic capacitors exist, but they cannot take AC because of the ripple current rating, and a complicated thing called ESR. They can, however, take DC in either direction.
If you pass AC through a capcitor, then it charges and discharges once per cycle. So you end up with a random DC charge when you disconnect the current, depending on exactly when you disconnect it.
Multilayer Ceramic Capacitor is Pb-free and RoHS compliant.
Designed to save PCB space, KPS Series X7R MLCC features low ESR and ESL and capacitance values from 0.1-47 µF. Series is available in 1210, 1812, 2220 case sizes and voltage options of 10, 16, 25, 50, 100, and 250 V. Non-polar device offers advanced protection against thermal and mechanical stress and provides up to 10 mm of board flex capability. Handling temperatures from -55 to +125°C ...
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